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19th Century photographs draw similarities among traditional dress and the portrayal of women across different cultures

Published on April 30, 2015 by India Pougher

Since the early 19^th century, photography has been a crucial means of communication for citizens, governments, writers and artists. With the rise of photography during periods of colonial rule, however, came a new racial ideology (Ball-Phillips, Lecture). By examining photographs from similar periods in India and Mexico, cross-cultural connections about women, gender and historic dress become evident. The female portrayal in 19^th century photography in India and Mexico depicts the status and regional perceptions of women at the time.

“Photography was also used by Western travellers in anthropological studies – and to fundraise for missionary work, by showing the folks back home the ‘improvements’ wrought in the lives of the ‘natives,’” Nadia Hijab writes in her 1988 review of Sarah Graham-Brown’s Images of Women the portrayal of women in photography of the Middle East 1860-1950 (1673).

Women’s costume is made more prominent by the introduction of photography. No longer do people paint the ideal image of a woman, but rather showcase her in all her glory or degradation, with no way to mask the imperfections that may be present, whether in her clothes, location or actions.

Photography without an accompanying text, not only allows, but really forces the viewer to determine his or her own explanation and background for the image. Because of this and the fact that all of these photos were taken by male photographers, these female subjects are often left without a voice. Thus these photos, which were often used to depict life in these colonial regions, were often taken out of context and used to project different images and ideas of Indian and Mexican women.

One example of this is the emergence of “orientalism,” and the western obsession with mystery, sexuality and the harem, of the Middle East.

“Within the confines of the palace, the only men who were allowed to visit a woman were her husband and direct blood relatives. Because of this, portraits of royal women were idealized, as court artists typically were not given access to these subjects. However idealized their facial features may be, South Asian women depicted in paintings still provide evidence of the costume elements and accessories that they wore” (What People Wore When, 202).

With the rise of “orientalism,” the mystery around an Indian woman’s dress was heralded and examined through a western lens. Hijab writes about prevalence of photography as a means to emphasize this phenomenon, much like previous paintings did. Photography acted as a medium for furthering the idea of “orientalism.”

“For many decades, Western photographs of Middle Eastern subjects (people and places) carried on the Orientalist themes present in paintings. European travellers continued to be fascinated by the women of the Middle East, and especially by the images of indolence and sensuality conjured up by the concept of the harem, women waited in seclusion to do their master’s bidding,” Hijab writes (1673)

Banian Women stand in front of fence ( William Johnson ca. 1855-1862)
http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/eaa/id/715

What people wear has a significant impact on how they are perceived. Historic dress and costume played a role in the concept of “orientalism.” In this case, there is a stark contrast among the subjects in these four photographs. Beginning with the photograph, Banian Women, by William Johnson (ca. 1855-1862), the subjects of this photograph are two women, set in the middle of the frame, who appear to be standing in front of a temple or other important building. These women seem to be of similar age and could be related as sisters or sisters-in-law.

In the 2008 book, What People Wore When: A Complete Illustrated History of Costume from Ancient Times to the Nineteenth Century for Every Level of Society, it is explained how women of Western India in the 19^th century, such as in the photograph, Banian Women, often wore “a bandhani skirt and head covering” (205).

Three Bhundaree Women at work (William Johnson ca.1855-1862)
http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/eaa/id/747/rec/52

With both the sari and the bandhani, women traditionally wore a veil or other head covering. In the photo, Banian Women, the women appear to be wearing long bandhanis and pieces of cloth wrapped around their heads and torsos. The women are barefoot, but wear jewelry, and there appears to be a motif on the head covering of the woman on the left. Because of their long skirts (which required more fabric and more money), these women seem to be of a higher station. The women in the photo, Bhundaree Women, also by William Johnson (ca. 1855-1862), are dressed vastly different in comparison to the women in Banian Women. These women do not wear head coverings; rather they have their hair tightly pulled back. They wear short cloth pants, gathered at the knees, and short-sleeve shirts underneath pieces of cloth wrapped around the torso and draped over one shoulder, much like a sari is tied. Although they do wear jewelry, in contrast to the women in Banian Women, the short and much more simple garments worn by these women suggest that they are working-class. In fact, in the image, the three women lean against a tree trunk as they sort fruits and vegetables into baskets.

The head covering, worn by the women in Banian Women is an example of the kind of image that suggests the mystery of the harem or “orientalism,” from the western perspective. In many different cultures veils or head coverings allude to mysterious things, simply because they block the viewer from knowing what lies beneath.

“The emancipation of women in the Middle East is tied up with the national liberation movements, and this has led the people of the region to adhere to traditions they might have changed more rapidly left to their own devices. For instance, the Western obsession with veiling – and colonialist attempts to ‘liberate’ women by doing away with the veil – were seen by people as attempts to subvert society by subverting the family, as is the case to this day,” Hijab says (1674).

In 19^th century India, the common garment worn by women is the sari. The sari is one long strip of fabric that is wrapped around the body and tied so that it has the effect of a dress. Falguni A. Sheth writes in a 2009 article entitled, “The Hijab and the Sari: The Strange and Sexy between Colonialism and Global Capitalism,” about the underlying mystery of sexuality that follows certain types of Middle Eastern dress, particularly the sari.

“The history of colonialism and the forced domestication of the sari help to facilitate its reception as an acceptably ‘sexy’ garment,” Sheth says (Sheth).

This sexuality is the premise of colonial “orientalism,” and serves as the underlying theme in how many of these photographs were perceived by western culture.

Mexican woman poses for postcard photograph (n.d.)
No URL available

The photos from Mexico are also strikingly different. In the postcard, the woman is very dressed up, wearing a detailed dress with floral and plaid prints. The dress also features a ruffle design at the hem and an intricate lace collar. She wears her hair in a low bun with earrings hanging down to frame her face. Unlike the barefoot women in the photos from India, this woman is wearing shoes. She appears as if she is on her way to church or some other important gathering. She seems happy as she strikes a pose under the tree, with her intricately woven basket.

In a harsh comparison, the girl in the photograph, Otomie Indian Woman by C.B. Waite (ca. 1905), appears very upset. She is wearing a tattered skirt and short poncho made out of what appears to be a heavier material, such as canvas or wool. The only embellishment on her garment is the wide stripe toward the bottom of her skirt and the dirty, old fringe that hangs beneath. Her face is also dirty and her hair is messy. It appears that the photographer may have caught a photo of this girl amid the hustle and bustle of the street activities. She may have been playing with friends, who peak their faces out of the edge of the picture, or she may have been begging for food or other charity.

Indian girl stands in threadbare clothes (C.B. Waite, 1905)
http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/mex/id/788/rec/121

In “The Chicana in American History: The Mexican Women of El Paso, 1880-1920– A Case Study,” Mario T. Garcia writes about the lack of focus on Mexican women living in the southwestern United States at the turn of the 20^th century.

“Although Mexican women have made significant contributions to the growth of a Chicano working class in the United States, their history has received little attention. Interpretive and historiographical pieces have been written, but no in-depth scholarship on the subject has emerged,” Garcia writes (315).

Although, as Garcia points out, there is a lack of written material on the Chicano woman and her household, there are a multitude of visual sources available, such as the photographs just discussed, which depict a moment in the lives of these women.

The life of the Chicano woman required her to care for the whole of the family unit, including her husband and children. This made her a crucial part of the family structure (Garcia 319).

The woman in the postcard appears to be old enough to have children. She may be on her way to the market or to church with her family. This family group was a common cultural phenomenon, at the time, and required the mother to be a primary caretaker of the family.

“In Mexico at the turn of the century, the urban working class and rural family appear to have constituted a strong social and economic institution,” Garcia writes (317).

This is a important statement on the status of Mexican women at this time. However, this fact about colonial Mexican culture is lost on the viewer of any of these images, because they require the viewer to determine their own background for the image, much like with the photographs from India and the phenomenon of “orientalism.”

Despite the differences between the photographs from each country, the regions and periods as a whole, in terms of their reflections of women, appear to be vastly similar. These photographs of women were seen, in the western world, as accurate depictions of life in these areas of colonial rule. But without the women’s voice or any other context, the viewer is forced to rely on his or her imagination and minimal knowledge about these cultures. The most poignant aspect of these images is the clothing that the subjects wear, and that cue is perceived in many different ways.

“The reading of the normative implications of a garment is intrinsically linked to the racial lens through which the population is read,” Sheth says (Sheth).

Works Cited

Ball-Phillips, Rachel. KNW2399. Southern Methodist University. Dallas. 2015. Lecture.

Foley, Neil. KNW2399. Southern Methodist University. Dallas. 2015. Lecture.

Garcia, Mario T. “The Chicana in American History: The Mexican Women of El Paso, 1880-1920: A Case Study.” Pacific Historical Review 49.2 (1980): 315-37. JSTOR. Web. 27 April 2015. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3638904

Hijab, Nadia. Review of Images of Women: The Portrayal of Women in Photography of the Middle East 1860-1950, by Susan M. Hartman. Third World Quarterly 10.4 (1998): 1672-74. JSTOR. Web. 27 April 2015. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3992524

Johnson, William. Banian Women. ca. 1855-1862. Photograph. DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University. http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/eaa/id/715

Johnson, William. Bhundaree Women. ca. 1855-1862. Photograph. DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University. http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/eaa/id/747/rec/52

Leventon, Melissa, ed. What People Wore When: A complete History of Costume from Ancient Times to the Nineteenth Century for Every Level of Society. New York: Ivy Press, 2008.

Lindsay, David. “The Daguerreotype is Invented.” PBS. PBS, n.d. Web. 30 April 2015. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eastman/peopleevents/pande10.html

Peers, Douglas M. and Nandini Gooptu, ed. India and the British Empire. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2012. Print.

Sheth, Falguni A. “The Hijab and the Sari: The Strange and Sexy between Colonialism and Global Capitalism.” Contemporary Aesthetics 2 (2009): 1-20. Web. 30 April 2015. http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/ca/7523862.spec.208/–hijab-and-the-sari-the-strange-and-sexy-between-colonialism?rgn=main;view=fulltext

Tharakan, Sophie M. and Michael Tharakan. “Status of Women in India: A Historical Perspective.” Social Scientist 4.4/5 (1975): 115-23. JSTOR. Web. 27 April 2015. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3516124

Unknown. Unknown. n.d. Postcard. DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University.

Waite, C.B. Otomie Indian Woman. 1905. Photograph. DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University. http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/mex/id/788/rec/121

For Better or Worse: Economic Change in Mexico and India

Published on April 30, 2015 by Keri Lawson

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Views of an Empire

Published on April 30, 2015 by Braeden Bailey

How photographs help historians draw threads of commonality across space and time.

As I stood in the reading room of the DeGolyer library, I struggled to process the sheer amount of visual information being thrown at me. Before me stood three long tables which were scattered with various photographs, frail and aging, their warm, brown tints calling me closer. The DeGolyer library at Southern Methodist University has an incredibly impressive collection of photographs depicting colonial India and Mexico in the late-18th to mid 19th centuries. These photographs illustrate a wide range of people and sights, from landscapes to depictions of nobility to rugged, honest (and some romanticized, less honest) descriptions of rural life.
One particular photograph catches my eye. It shows a group of men, some standing, some kneeling, some sitting. They all seem to carry a certain air of nobility, although the one seated figure seems to wield a certain amount of authority that the others do not possess. I also suspect that I’m drawn to the photograph because of the incredibly ornate head wraps. The foreign nature of their dress, and consequently, the foreign nature of the picture is what makes the picture so compelling. It carries the implication that there’s a distinct world that’s been captured in this photograph; one that I’m aware of but am able to fully comprehend.
And yet, it is this awareness of the intangible, the desire to discover the unknown which compels historians to dig deeper into the histories behind these photographs. But why? Out of all of the various forms of media that refer to 19th century India, why have historians chosen to collect and dissect something like photography?

What does it mean to take a photograph? American society has crafted a very specific context around that action. To take is possessive. So when someone takes a photograph, they are capturing something very essential about whatever subject matter is before them and keeping it for themselves. In the same way that we use photography to capture faces, historians use photography to capture things which lie beneath the surface, things with less immediacy but as much importance. Capturing histories. Capturing culture.

For example, the aforementioned photo, titled ‘Goals, or Hereditary Slaves of Katiawar’ is an interesting statement about Britain’s relationship with the customs of colonial India. ‘Goals’ were a class of servant in India. (Machado 261) They often came from the bloodlines of people who couldn’t afford to pay off debts, or from people who had previously functioned as aides and servants to nobility. However, it is very possible that the individuals pictured are of a higher order of servants. Notice the nature of their clothing; it appears very clean and moderately expensive. Articles of clothing such as sashes and vests indicate higher levels of social caste that just a simple servant.

In Katiawar, the import of African slaves was a very common practice. Slave labor would be used for the domestic and agricultural maintenance of the elite and ruling classes of India. (EIC 179). What’s so compelling about this entire situation is that Britain, India’s colonizers, had already abolished slavery. Even though the British could strongly imply that slavery was not to be tolerated, the way in which they dealt with slavery in India was much more relaxed. British presence in India was often ‘ambivalent’ or even outwardly supportive of ‘slaveholder’s property rights’.

So this particular photograph is a visual manifestation of a very awkward and complex association between Britain’s version of morality and India’s version of reality. There’s also the very interesting and perplexing pattern of a subjugated population turning around and subjugating others, in India’s case, poorer Indians and Africans having to be subservient to richer Indians. It also reflects an unfortunate consequence of imperialism, the idea that the colonized population can adopt the worst aspects of the people colonizing them, often adopting their ideologies and to a degree, mirroring them.

detail of photograph showing railroad construction scene from 1890 in India

Construction of the Bengal-Nagpur Railway, ca. 1890-1897 – detail

Another wonderful capability of photography is to capture the kineticism of everyday life. One particularly interesting photograph depicts an entire community of Indians who are involved in railroad construction. The scene is teeming with life; robed women sit to the left, presumably conversing while performing some sort of labor with their hands. In the middle of the scene, the road is absolute chaos; people bathed in swaths of white cloth going to and fro, a jumble of carts and wood, what appears to be a dark, sun-beaten, lanky man carrying some sort of apparatus or raw material on his back and side. Down to the right, a pantheon of somber, standing figures stares directly at the camera. Straw shanties and livestock bookend the picture; framing it to focus our interest and restrict our movement within the composition, but also achieving a feeling of movement and instability.

The irony of the rural nature of this photograph is that it actually depicts railroad construction. The British commissioned several rich, white industrialists to build railroad systems throughout India (IRFCA 1). Likely, the British were using the Indian people to construct their railroads because of their knowledge of the land and the very cheap labor that was afforded to them. Undoubtedly, the people who were making these railroads were wholly unable to actually use them. The physical object which is dictating so much of how they live their lives isn’t materially present; rather it is a symbolic figure that comes to represent their own lack of agency. It’s also very representative of how Indian society worked: the indigenous people of India were subjected to labor but were ultimately separated from and denied the fruit of what their hands wrought.

A lot of the photographs of colonial India work along these lines. They’re rich, loaded images that retrace the histories of India’s interactions with the British Empire. In general, they’re also an incredibly interesting look into the patterns of colonization, which is why these images have been paired with a series of images from colonial Mexico. Mexico’s colonial history with Spain takes considerably different forms than that of colonial India’s. But when historians harness the nature of photography and its ability to convey deeper themes, they see fundamental similarities between the two societies and histories.

Execution of Mexican revolutionaries by hacienda owners.

One photograph is an incredibly dark depiction of an execution by hanging. To the left is a short tree, one that barely seems able to bear the weight of a body. It’s a compositionally disruptive element that brings the movement of the eye to a screeching, dead halt. It’s a pause that allows the viewer to take in the solemn nature of this scene. Strewn from the tree are two lifeless bodies, swinging from the tree. Their faces are dark and obscured. While this quality robs us of knowing their identity, it also transforms them into metaphorical beings; these figures which are victims of violence are representative of the larger Mexican populace, who are victims of violence and mistreatment from their colonizers.

The figures in the middle of the photograph are less provocative, but equally, if not more informative concerning colonialism in Mexico. The boldest standing figure is incredibly dark and foreboding, more of a specter than a human. He is heavily strapped with what appears to be ammunition around his chest and waist. To his right is a large, black firearm on which he is placing his weight. His sombrero is also striking. Because the most stereotypical characterization of Mexicans from the outside world is a figure in a sombrero, this figure is transformed into a sort of archetypal Mexican male. This is what also makes this scene very disquieting. The Spanish often characterized the indigenous people of Mexico as base, immoral and violent, and the role that this figure serves as executioner serves to reinforce this notion.

The most powerful and yet somehow least visible element in this picture is the pair of white men, standing in between the hanged individuals and the executioner. The two aforementioned figures command so much immediate attention that this pair of people is easy to miss. However, this is ironic considering that it’s very possible that these individuals are the ones who have ordered the execution. There doesn’t seem for there to be any other reason for these men to be present, and generally speaking, executioners don’t execute people purely of their own volition, rather they’re commissioned. But even though they are the most insidious element in this photograph by contracting the death of others, they play the background by allowing the Mexican executioner to be the focus of the viewer’s fear.This also strongly relates to the first image in the patterns that colonizers adopt in the control of the colonized population. Instead of directly imposing their will on the colonized, they often influence certain elements of the colonized to indirectly do their dirty work.

The figures in the previous photograph expose something very unsettling in the realm of photography. Photography is incredibly subjective; the biases of the photographer are crystallized and trapped within each picture. This is most easily shown in Spanish characterization of the Indians of Mexico.

One photographer illustrates the typical Indian as a part of an overarching series called ‘Types of Mexicans’. The photograph shows two, short Indian men standing in the street, outside of a house, Their clothing is very simple and very cheap. They’re wearing identical ponchos made of a very thick material that must be uncomfortable to wear. They each have a very dirty pair of white or khaki shorts, and they’re both barefooted. The street they’re standing in is strewn with trash, making it an inconvenient place to travel barefoot. The shelter they’re standing in front of also reflects a low socioeconomic standing. It’s roof is made of straw, ad it’s enclosing facade is made of many large, sturdy sticks woven together as some makeshift door/wall.

This picture serves to reinforce the common characterization of Indians in Mexico. The Spanish generalized them as poor, uneducated, and unable to govern themselves properly. The unorganized, impoverished nature of these two Indians and their surroundings reinforces this generalization.

Bibliography

Machado, Pedro. “Africa in India.” In Ocean of Trade: South Asian Merchants, Africa and the Indian Ocean, C. 1750-1850, 261-263. Cambridge University Press, 2014.

“Relating to Slavery in the East Indies.” In East India: Slavery, Volume Three, 179. Vol. 3. East India Company, 1841.

“IR History: Early Days – I.” [IRFCA] Indian Railways FAQ: IR History: Early Days. Accessed April 30, 2015.

The Infrastructure that built the Empires of Mexico and India

Published on April 30, 2015 by Caleb Underwood

Some people might glance at a photo and not think much about it. Others might look at a photo and look for the thousand words its worth. A photograph captures the history and can be a reflection of meaningful depictions from the past. It can give the viewer insights into the lives, hopes, and dreams of people who lived long ago. This article will show you four historical photographs from both India and Mexico. These photographs will illustrate the ongoing construction of the new infrastructure and transportation in both of the empires of India and Mexico, which was the key component that paved the way of the future for the production and sales of goods, and services in both countries.

Above is a photo an Indian railroad construction site of the Benghal Nagpur Railroad Construction (1890).
Link: http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/eaa/id/1503/rec/18

This is a photo of the Bengal-Nagpur Railway Construction taken by Townshend photography. In this photograph, there are hundreds of Indian workers who seem to be wearing well-worn work clothes while walking over a make-shift bridge. I don’t think I’m the only one who freaks out when driving over a modern bridge today. I couldn’t imagine walking over the one shown in the photograph. By the looks of it, these people probably belong in the lower, working class at a poverty level where the pay is almost nothing. However, it’s the people in the photo who India should thank for putting in the blood, sweat, and tears for the construction of this railway. Because little did these workers know that what they are starting would turn into one of the world’s largest railway networks today and one of India’s greatest assets. This railway was called the Bengal-Nagpur Railway which is now called the South Eastern Railway. In an article from Anglo- India Central, the use and need of a railroad system in British India was what served as the backbone for economic growth and industrial development in the post independence era. Having this railroad would not only serve as a means for transportation for the people but also as a way to transport goods and services across India in a timely manner unparalleled to anything else. For those in the photograph, they knew it was imperative to their existence and the symbol of their hopes and dreams. Not only would it be their source of income, it would also give them an avenue to connect to the rest of the world.

In comparison, this next photograph, taken by photographer Charles Burlingame, was taken in Mexico of three men who have a load of wholesale Mexican baskets strapped to their backs. In this photo, these three men are wearing shawls, sandals, and sombreros and one is holding what looks to be a walking stick. This would have been the way goods moved from one place to another before the construction of the railroads. Talk about putting the team on your back! I know I would have loved the innovation of a railroad system if it were my job to transport all those baskets by foot. But it turns out these men seem to be standing on a railroad, so, more than likely, these men were the transporters of goods to sell from the railroad stop to the outlying villages and markets. The goods in the baskets, and even the baskets themselves could have been made miles and miles away from the village where they will eventually end up. But they would never have arrived there without the creation of the railroads in Mexico. Railroads built by the same type of lower-class, poverty-level workers who built the railroads in India. Stated by Osgood Hardy in the Pacific Historical Review of the revolution and the railroads of Mexico, “In 1876 there had been only 691 kilometers built; by 1890 there were 8,948, while in 1900 and 1911 there were 14,573 and 24,717 kilometers respectively”(Hardy, 249). At the time the photograph was taken, the railroad industry was booming. After seeing how useful and successful the railway system was in the rest of the world, Mexico couldn’t get enough. The workers who built the railroads in Mexico shared the same hopes and dreams of those who built the railroads in India and knew it would connect them to the rest of the world.

This next photo clearly shows that these men are creating a tunnel to build a railroad through a mountain. Also taken by Townshend Photography this is a snapshot at a point in time when the Bengal-Nagpur Railway was being constructed. These men look as if they have been working on this project for quite some time. Some look to be laborers such as the individuals in the previous Mexico photograph and some look to be their supervisors. All seem to be taking pride in their work by the way they are standing proud in the photo and know they are part of something that will benefit their country for many years to come. In both Mexico and India, the social classes of the workers building these railroads looked to be hard working folks who grind all day long just to be able to put food on the table for their families. The need for this railroad to be constructed through a mountain lets us know that India was being strategic in planning their routes for the most efficiency and placing the railroads in the best places to get the most time sensitive routes. In today’s world, the same strategy would be to construct highways to run under, or over, the city to make it the most time efficient for drivers and commuters to pass through without having fight congestion in the city traffic. Goods and services can make a lot better time if they go through a tunnel rather than having to take the long route around, or over, a mountain. Ironically, not only did the Indian people have to construct and build these railroads but the funding to build them came out of the Indian taxpayer’s pocket. Stated by Stuart Sweeney in a text called Indian Railroading, “By 1908, Britain had invested 274 million of capital in Indian railways, making it the largest single investment program undertaken in the British Empire. Railways made up 80 percent of Britain’s industrial investment in India, relying on Indian tax payers to fund construction and early operations”(Sweeney, 57). The amount of money invested into this project for India was astronomical. Although it doesn’t seem like a lot for a nationwide advance in industrial progress, in the days it was built that amount was a fortune. They searched for different ways to bring in more funding for the project. Again, a quote from Stuart Sweeney, “Railway financiers and promoters could press commercial, strategic, and famine protective rationales, leaving them immune to criticism when commercial returns disappointed,”(Sweeney, 57) This statement leads to the deduction that even though collecting the necessary funding was difficult, they found ways to get the amount needed. However, all the labor, sacrifice, and hard work paid off as the railroads were a success right from the beginning all the way until today. Stated from the India Brand Equity Foundation’s website, India’s railroad brought in a total approximate earnings of $128,928.28 crore which is equivalent to $20.41 billion US dollars in a 10-month period prior to June, 2014. Considering the fact that British India invested just $274 million into the building of their railroad industry and are now making $20.41 billion in a 10-month time frame is mind blowing.

Railway Viaduct

Much like the mountain that India had to navigate through to build their tunnel in the previous photograph, the people of Mexico also had obstacles to conquer in their goals to better themselves and their country. Both India and Mexico had similar goals that they would do anything to complete these railroads by any means necessary. Both of these countries are depending on these railroads for economic and social growth and to stay connected with the rest of the world. This last photograph is called “Viaducto de Jajalpa” taken by Abel Briquet around 1890. Although this photo has no people in it, the results of their labor are evident by the length, height, and complexity of the bridge they built over the ravine. Their success is evident just by the fact the train is successfully making it across the bridge. The viewer can imagine this train is on its way to pick up goods from one location and take them to another location. Goods that will increase Mexico’s economic structure, build towns, or feed people. This valuable asset is available only because of the common laborer who worked for low wages and put so much work into this project to make it possible for this country to take the next step forward in their industrial progression. In fact, the two empires of India and Mexico had the same vision of the need of their railroads. Stated by John H. Coatsworth in a text called Indispensable Railroads in a Backward Economy, “The railroads carried 15.8 million passengers and a total of more than a billion passenger-kilometers in 1910. While these passengers could have walked or traveled by stage at no extra pecuniary cost, they preferred the railroad because it was more comfortable, less traumatic, and safer”(Coatsworth, 952). The people of Mexico wanted the railroads! The people of Mexico needed the railroads! Several million people preferred railroad transportation over any other means of travel. I know that if it were my choice of having to sit on a train or have to ride on a horse or even a stagecoach, I would have chosen the comfort of a train.

Even though these two countries are on opposite sides of the world, these photographs demonstrate that India and Mexico had common goals. Both countries used their resources to build up their infrastructure to be able to keep up with the rapid growth of the industrial progression throughout the rest of the world. Both India and Mexico showed they didn’t let obstacles such as a mountain or a ravine stand in their way, and both countries knew that efficiency was a long-term necessity. However, most important are the Mexican and Indian workers who devoted their lives to these difficult projects with the same hopes and dreams of advancing their country and themselves. Who knew that just four photographs could share so much insight into a time in the history of two great countries?

Works Cited

Bogart, Dan. “Nationalizations and the Development of Transport Systems: Cross-Country Evidence from Railroad Networks, 1860–1912.where da white wimmin at” The Journal of Economic History. Vol. 69, No.1 (Mar., 2009), pp. 202-237.

Buddhadeb, Ghosh; Prabir, De. “Indian Ports and Globalisation: Grounding Economics in Geography”Economic and Political Weekly. Vol. 36, No. 34 (Aug. 25-31, 2001), pp. 3271-3283 Economic and Political Weekly

Coatsworth, John. “Indispensable Railroads in a Backward Economy: The Case of Mexico.” Pg. 952. JSTOR. December 1, 1979

Hardy, Osgood. “The Revolution and the Railroads of Mexico”. Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 3, No. 3 (Sep., 1934): pp. 249. JStor.org (accessed April 27, 2015).

“Indian Railways.” Railways in India, Rail Way, Infrastructure, Industry. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2015.

Sweeney, Stuart. Indian Railroading: floating railroad companies in the late nineteenth century.pp. 57. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2015.

“The Story of Bengal Nagpur Railway (BNR) Now South Eastern Railway.” Angloindiacentral RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2015.

One Day You’re In; The Next Day You’re Out

Published on April 30, 2015 by Victoria Serrano

From divergent gender roles, to class systems, to religious beliefs, to monetary values alike, true equality has yet to exist. This division has endured throughout history and is almost unavoidable due to the way in which they assist societies to function as a whole in their respective countries. Merriam-Webster defines equality as, “the quality or state of having the same rights, social status, etc.”[1] Since the mid-18^th century, women have been fighting for equal rights and have slowly made progress as time has passed. Issues of gender equality and class structure have been consistent points of contention in Mexico and India’s history; however, they’ve affected them in different ways. Textual evidence may provide the necessary information and evidence to understand the situation of the time, but rarely do they paint a vivid picture of the circumstance at hand; visual sources are crucial. History is also examined through photography and gender lenses. A vivid description and/or an actual visual representation of the past allows for a deeper understanding of the division among Mexico and India’s borders. Regardless of the empire, examining gender inequalities and caste systems through Mexico and India clarify the past for the people of today.

Porfirio Díaz ruled from 1876 to 1910 in Mexico; his 34-year era is known as the Porfiriato and was one of modernization and industrial progress for Mexico.[2] The late 18^th century brought about expansion among the nation’s railroads, mines and ports. Unfortunately not everyone was able to experience this progress first hand. “The major benefits of this growth and modernization were reserved for only a relatively small, elite group of Mexicans and for foreign capitalists. Even worse, despite the nation’s rapid economic growth, obreros and campesinos (workers and peasants) sank deeper into poverty, ignorance, and misery.”[3] Mexican women banded together and fought very hard against inequality and “the traditional social mores that kept women tied solely to home and family, and against the legal code that served to stifle women’s political, educational, and economic needs.”[4] Women, especially of low class, were forced to work in factories or as maids. All women were second fiddle to men and/or their husband.

The following photographs were taken during the Porfiriato and allow us to better understand the true conditions in which they lived. “Critical imagery of the Porfiriato is probably limited to that made by foreigners such as C.B. Waite and Winfield Scott.”[5] The photograph (on right) is titled “Three Girls and a Woman Checking Hair” and was taken by Winfield Scott in Mexico.[6] Scott was known as a provocative photographer of his time. At first glance these four young Mexican women appear to be braiding each other’s hair, but upon closer look, they instead seem to be picking dirt out of each other’s hair, which by now is obvious knowing the title of the image. They are sitting in a train like manner, one in front of the other, on the ground. In addition to being arranged, starting on the left, from youngest to oldest. They each look after each other with such care and careful attention. “Although their motives were those of celebrating the creation of a new and dynamic Mexico, as well as bringing tourists to exotic (but safe) locales, Waite and Scott made some images that were at the same time indexes of the crushing poverty and underdevelopment in which so many Mexicans lived.”[7] Waite and Scott were usually contracted out to take pleasant photos for postcards, but instead chose to capture the harsh truth.

The next photograph (on the left) is titled “Grinding Corn in Tehuantepec” and was taken by C.B. Waite in Tehuantepec, Mexico.[8] The image features two young women. The one on the right is grinding corn, while the other is holding a small naked child on her lap. Both girls’ facial expressions are simultaneously not amused and sad. “Between 1895 and 1910, women comprised one-third of all workers employed in manufacturing in Mexico.”[9] Many women worked in the textile and tobacco industries. There were also poorly educated women who were unable to hold positions in the aforementioned industries and instead could only work as a prostitute. “Foreign photographers were especially attracted to the fate of children: girls and boys in rags huddling together in the countryside and the cities, entire families participating in communal delousing.”[10]

A social institution can be defined as a system of behavioral and relationship patterns that are densely interwoven and function across an entire society. They also contribute to a country’s organization. India’s social institutions “were its caste system and its archaic and dominating forms of religious community.”[11] India’s caste system is both a structural system and a cultural one. There are two versions of the caste system: the varna and the national system. Following the national caste system, “caste divides the population into four major groups: the Brahmin (priestly caste) at the top, followed by the Kshatriya (warrior caste), then the Vaishya (commoners, usually known as the trading and artisan castes), and at the bottom the Sudra (agricultural labourers) some of whom are beyond the pale of caste and are known as untouchables.”[12] “[These castes] only came to be extended comprehensively throughout Indian society from
the eighteenth century, initially as a consequence of the strengthening power of scribal and ritual elites in the post-Moghal successor states, and then over the course of the nineteenth century as these movements of upward mobility were reinforced by the legal, religious and administrative strategies of the British colonial state.”[13] Women were largely impacted by castes and were trapped in a suppressive male driven society.

This photograph (on the right) is titled “A Parsee Family” and was taken by William Johnson sometime between 1855 and 1862 in Western India.[14] The photo depicts a family of four- a mother, father, and two young children. The mother is sitting with her two children standing on either side of her. The father stands to the far right of his family with his arm around them. He appears to be protesting them or enforcing his dominance. Within the castes men hold dominance over women; in fact, “increased control over women is one of the factors that a caste must observe along with vegetarianism and teetotalism before it can claim to be ritually pure.”[15]

This photograph (on the left) is called “Bhattia Women” and was taken by William Johnson in 1855-1862 in Western India.[16] The Bhatia caste is comprised of people in Punjab, Rajasthan, Sindh and Gujarat. They mostly live in Northwestern India and Pakistan.[17] Castes also allow men to make all of the big decisions; a woman does not have any say. In addition, “is the far greater control exercised by men over women’s sexuality, through arranged marriage, child marriage, the prohibition of divorce, and strict monogamy for women, leading to sati and ban on widow remarriage, including infant or child widows.”[18] Upper castes were known for following these allowances strictly. Sati (Suttee) is a religious practice where a widowed woman jumps on her husband’s funeral pyre; this is also an example of widow immolation. Fanny Parks, a European writer at the time wrote about an account of suttee in a letter to her family. Her letter is one of a few textual sources that evoked emotion and a visual image of the account. She describes how a woman was treated during the suttee ceremony; she was harshly mistreated when she attempted to back out of the ceremony. “’Cut her down, knock her on the head with a bamboo; tie her hands and feet; and throw her in again;’ and rushed down to execute their murderous intentions, when the gentlemen and police drove them back.”[19] Indian women are often portrayed as victims or heroines of an oppressive male society.[20]

Issues of gender equality and class structure have been consistent points of contention in Mexico and India’s history; however, they’ve affected them in slightly different ways. Similar to Mexico, this time in Western India also experienced a rise of modernity and with it, “women, moreover, appeared in the new public sphere as radical critics of orthodox norms and practices. By the turn of the twentieth century, they had organized themselves into political organizations.”[21] Through the lens of gender division and caste systems has significantly affected Mexico and India as a whole. Studying these events through a specific lens such as photography or a recounting of an experience allowed me to grasp a stronger understanding and form a visual image of what occurred. Gender and class division are major issues in history that have yet to stop impacting our world today. Learning how these issues were dealt with in the past is helpful for our society moving forward.

[1] “Equality.” Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Accessed April 28, 2015.

[2] Soto, Shirlene Ann. Emergence of the Modern Mexican Woman: Her Participation in Revolution and Struggle for Equality, 1910-1940. Denver, Colo.: Arden Press, 1990. 7.

[3] Soto, Emergence of the Modern Mexican Woman, 7.

[4] Soto, Emergence of the Modern Mexican Woman, 8.

[5] Mraz, John. Photographing the Mexican Revolution: Commitments, Testimonies, Icons. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2012. 28.

[6] Scott, Winfield. “[Three Girls and a Woman Checking Hair]: Mexico – Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints.” Three Girls and a Woman Checking Hair: Mexico – Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints. Accessed April 28, 2015. http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/mex/id/665/rec/3

[7] Mraz, Photographing the Mexican Revolution, 31.

[8] Waite, C.B. “Grinding Corn in Tehuantepec: Mexico – Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints.” Grinding Corn in Tehuantepec: Mexico – Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints. Accessed April 28, 2015. http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/mex/id/2574/rec/162.

[9] Soto, Emergence of the Modern Mexican Woman, 13.

[10] Mraz, Photographing the Mexican Revolution, 32.

[11] Peers, Douglas M., and Nandini Gooptu. India and the British Empire. Oxford University Press, 2012. 100.

[12] Liddle, Joanna, and Rama Joshi. Daughters of Independence: Gender, Caste, and Class in India. New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1986. 58.

[13] Peers & Gooptu, India and the British Empire, 103.

[14] Johnson, William. “A Parsee Family :: Europe, India, and Asia – Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints.” A Parsee Family: Europe, India, and Asia – Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints. Accessed April 28, 2015. http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/eaa/id/737/rec/1.

[15] Liddle & Joshi, Daughters of Independence, 59.

[16] Johnson, William. “Bhattia Women :: Europe, India, and Asia – Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints.” Bhattia Women: Europe, India, and Asia – Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints. Accessed April 28, 2015. http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/eaa/id/671/rec/12.

[17] Chattopadhyaya, Kamaladevi. Tribalism in India. Michigan: Vikas, Original from the University of Michigan, 1978. 160.

[18] Liddle & Joshi, Daughters of Independence, 59.

[19] Parks, Fanny. Wanderings of a Pilgrim in Search of the Picturesque. With an introduction and notes by Esther Chawner. Vol. I. Oxford in Asia Historical Reprints. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1975.

[20] Lecture Notes (3/3/15)

[21] Peers & Gooptu, India and the British Empire, 286.

Works Cited

Chattopadhyaya, Kamaladevi. Tribalism in India. Michigan: Vikas, Original from the University of Michigan, 1978. 160.

“Equality.” Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Accessed April 28, 2015.

Liddle, Joanna, and Rama Joshi. Daughters of Independence: Gender, Caste, and Class in India. New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1986.

Mraz, John. Photographing the Mexican Revolution: Commitments, Testimonies, Icons.Austin: University of Texas Press, 2012.

Johnson, William. “A Parsee Family :: Europe, India, and Asia – Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints.” A Parsee Family: Europe, India, and Asia – Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints. Accessed April 28, 2015. http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/eaa/id/737/rec/1.

Johnson, William. “Bhattia Women :: Europe, India, and Asia – Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints.” Bhattia Women: Europe, India, and Asia – Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints. Accessed April 28, 2015. http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/eaa/id/671/rec/12.

Parks, Fanny. Wanderings of a Pilgrim in Search of the Picturesque. With an introduction and notes by Esther Chawner. Vol. I. Oxford in Asia Historical Reprints. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1975.

Peers, Douglas M., and Nandini Gooptu. India and the British Empire, Print.

Scott, Winfield. “[Three Girls and a Woman Checking Hair]: Mexico – Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints.” Three Girls and a Woman Checking Hair: Mexico – Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints. Accessed April 28, 2015. http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/mex/id/665/rec/3

Soto, Shirlene Ann. Emergence of the Modern Mexican Woman: Her Participation in Revolution and Struggle for Equality, 1910-1940. Denver, Colo.: Arden Press, 1990.

Waite, C.B. “Grinding Corn in Tehuantepec: Mexico – Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints.” Grinding Corn in Tehuantepec: Mexico – Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints. Accessed April 28, 2015. http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/mex/id/2574/rec/162

Edges of the Empire: Mexico & India

Published on April 30, 2015 by Brody Hickey

Textual evidence may provide the necessary information and evidence to understand the situations of a time in history, but very rarely do they paint a vivid picture of the circumstance at hand. This is where visual sources play a crucial role. Photographs of history not only give you a visual experience but also a textual experience as well. The viewer is not only During the colonization of the two countries, building railroads were very key aspects into not only the growth of the country but also the wealth, this following article will take the reader on a textual journey of photographs taken in India and Mexico to see the growth of transportation that led to the infrastructure of transporting goods across the countries and also the problems that people had to face.

India’s Railroads

The first photo is a picture from India taken in the early 1980s, and is titled Bengal-Nagpur Railway Construction. This photograph gives a strong idea of how difficult it was in this era to not only build the railroads but it also lets the viewer see how important the railroads were to be for the future of the country. In the photo you can see hundreds of people around the valley working to get these railroads complete. You can also see how dangerous it was for people to build these railroads, the bridge that is going across the valley is very flimsy and only pieces of wood are holding it up, but yet there are about 20 people on it at once. Many conclusions can be taken from this photo but it is clear that the British wanted to get the railroads completed as quickly as possible so that they can start transporting goods all over the country. “In a country of continental distances, it [the Bengal-Nagpur Railway] provided the foundation for modern economic expansion by facilitating the carriage of huge quantities of passengers and freight over very long distances at hitherto unparalleled speeds”(BNR). The reason why the British wanted to colonize in India in the first place is because of the goods that the country had to offer, such as their textile goods. With the introduction of railroads across the country the British would be able to get certain goods from one point of the country to another quicker and more efficient but most importantly more money would be brought in from it. Because the British were the ones that wanted to start the construction of the railroads it is easy to conclude that that they made the Indians do the dirty work and the hard-manual labor while they watched over and told the Indians what to do. As you can see in the climate in which they work in seems very dry and the air seems hot, yet they Indians continue working.

http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/eaa/id/1505/rec/44

Mexican Railroads

(Photo)Much like the railroads in India, the many railroads that were built in Mexico were to not only transport people and goods from one place to another, but also generate and bring in capital at a faster rate than it was before. “From the city of Chihuahua to a port in Sonora or northern Sinaloa, from the City of Mexico to the port in Guerrero, from Guadalajara to Mazatlan, From Tehuantepee line to Campeche, and from the City of Mexico to Tampico”(Powell). Although there are many more train routes than these in Mexico you can see a constant trend with the direction that the railroads were intended to go, and that was, out to the ports of the Pacific ocean and/or the Gulf of Mexico and back. “In 1911, Mexico had 24,717 kilometers of line built, today there are approximately 21,00 kilometers in operation Before the railroads were built in Mexico “the conveyance of all kinds of merchandise throughout the Republic of Mexico is effect by pack-mules and oxen. With the system, and the bad state of roads generally, it will be easily understood that transportation is not only slow but also costly, and forms one of the chief obstacles in the way of development of the great resources of the country. Railroads dramatically decreased transportation costs so that heavy or bulky products could be exported to Mexico’s Gulf Coast ports as well as rail links on the U.S. border. Railroads were initially owned almost exclusively by foreign investors, expanded from 1,000 kilometers to 19,000 kilometers of track between 1876 and 1910. The average distance performed by mules and wagons is from fifteen to 18 miles per day”(RRofM 93). Railroads dramatically decreased transportation costs so that heavy or bulky products could be exported to Mexico’s Gulf Coast ports as well as rail links on the U.S. border. Railroads were initially owned almost exclusively by foreign investors, expanded from 1,000 kilometers to 19,000 kilometers of track between 1876 and 1910. Railways have been termed a “critical agent of capitalist penetration By building these railroads and having them be a key point in society, the process of getting from one place to the other increases dramatically because early travelers in Mexico traveled upon backs of animals or in some instances in a heavy four-wheeled carriage called a (volante).

Bridges in Mexico

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India’s Worth

There are many factors that come into play when countries from Europe want to expand and colonize in different parts of the world. The land that the colonizers want to colonize must be able to bring in wealth. This is exactly why the British wanted to expand into South Asia. Prior to the British expanding into India, trade was a very big deal in the Indian Ocean. Even though trade was more common along the shores of India and down through Africa, there was also trade inland. In the Indian Ocean world there was a larger population than there was in the new world therefor a more chance to bring wealth for your empire and also to spread their religion and to serve god. With the Indian Ocean being the most used trading cycle in the world at the time India was known for having a lot of textiles and spices such as pepper, cinnamon, and cotton. “Among Indian handicrafts, the textile industry (especially cotton) was the most highly developed in terms of product differentiation” (Mukund 2058) In the picture above The Cotton Market, Bombay taken by photographer William Johnson, was taken to portray the every day life of a cotton picker in India. As the title of this picture portrays, the picture is of a market in the Indian city of Bombay selling cotton. Eight men, all wearing turbans, are seen sitting on and standing around numerous large bundles of cotton. In the photo there is also very large bags filled with cotton that these workers might have picked that morning. One man looks like he is stuffing a bag of cotton with a long stick, and others have bundles in their hands, possibly doing some sort of process that makes the cotton have less surface area making more room in the bag so that they can ship these off. Despite the mass of cotton around the men, none of them look wealthy. All are wearing simple white clothing, most likely cotton or even wool, with no color or intricate patterns that would symbolize wealth. This shows how the once booming cotton industry in India was crippled and taken over by the industrial textile factories of England. It is important to note that English letters can be seen on the large bundles of cotton in the background, showing that the cotton must have first came through the English, leaving less profit for the Indians pictured. Picking cotton is no easy job. It is very hard on the back and also the hands because the cotton plant is very sharp. Much like in today’s society the nicer the material is the more expensive it is going to be. Back then, it was the same concept, the rich had the nice material and the poor had the wool and sometimes cotton. To have silk meant that you were very wealthy and in a higher place in society.

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Mexico’s Textiles through Railroads

The Next photo from Mexico is titled Picking over Coffee in Coatepec, and was taken by the photographer Charles Burlinghame as part of his Album of people and views of Mexico. In this photo that he took there is four women and one man that the viewer can clearly see. The four women appear to be sorting through the coffee beans and placing them into individual straw baskets situated in front of them on the table. These coffee beans could potentially be sol as they are or ground or ground up into a smaller form and then transported across the country or even across the ocean back into Europe. The man in the picture is probably a higher-ranking individual in the company and is in charge of supervising aspects of the harvesting and packaging of the coffee beans. He may also be the owner of the building or of the coffee farm that they bag the beans at. In the early 1900s in Mexico railroads were spreading like wild fire, creating an entire network of railways the covered most of Mexico if not all. The railroads were mainly built so that they could transport textiles from place to place and increase revenue. It was during this period when Porfirio Diaz took over in the 1900s implementing railroads when the money revenue began to increase over time. With “Mexico’s railroad development reaching its peak in 1910”(Coatsworth 941), the transportation of goods from Mexico to other countries and other parts of Mexico were at a all time high. With women like these four in the picture producing and packaging as much textiles as possible such as coffee beans shown above, cotton, steal, and even pottery objects, revenue would increase for the country of Mexico.

Works Cited Page

Coatsworth, John H. “Indispensable Railroads in a Backward Economy: The Case of Mexico.” The Journal of Economic History. Cambridge University Press, Dec. 1979. Web.

Kerr, Ian J. Engines of Change: The Railroads That Made India. Taylor & Francis Online. Routledge, 7 Apr. 2012. Web.

Mukund, Kanakalatha. “Indian Textile Industry in 17th and 18th Centuries: Structure, Organisation and Responses.” Economic and Political Weekly. Economic and Political Weekly, 19 Sept. 1992. Web.

Osgood, Hardy. The Revolution and the Railroads of Mexico. 3rd ed. Vol. 3. N.p.: U California, n.d. Print.

Powell, Fred Wilbur. The Railroads of Mexico. Boston: Stratford, 1921. Print.

“The Story of Bengal Nagpur Railway (BNR) Now South Eastern Railway.” Angloindiacentral RSS. Anglo-India-Central, 7 Feb. 2011. Web. 29 Apr. 2015.

Indian and Mexican Women: The Backbone of their Economies, By Evan Taylor

Published on April 30, 2015 by Evan Taylor

Women’s importance to society is paramount, with their accomplishments being under-appreciated for much of history. In all aspects of life, this truth is profound with society only grasping this as a norm recently. To help understand why, a case-study between India and Mexico in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries is necessary.

The economic significance of women in these two nations is vast during this time period. Facts and photographs can easily prove this. However, the same oppression of women is shown to them in both of these countries. By looking at women’s role in the urban and rural economies of both India and Mexico, conclusions will be drawn on how important women truly were to these societies, and extrapolate a possible explanation for their suffering.

Women in India

Women in India were not treated as equals to men during the late 19^th and early 20^th century. There was an “oppressive patriarchal domination” by men that thoroughly defined the lives of women (Carter, 1996, 178). Women were seen as inferior to men, with them being physically and mentally the weaker of the two sexes. They were “unwilling, gullible and demoralized, if not depraved” in the eyes of society, with them simply not being fit to work (Carter, 1996, 177). Societal norms claimed that they were better off in the domestic sphere, to maintain the essential “domestic gentle feminity” that was coveted by men so much (Sarkar, 1987, 2012).

This leads to the conceived notion of women being trapped in the home. Their roles primarily consisted of childbearing, and being wives to urban men (Shukla, 1991, 63). Such oppressive norms such as arranging the house neatly, child rearing the children appropriately, dressing in nice clothes for when the husband returns home, never sitting idle, spending all hours of the day sewing and embroidery, and practicing a musical instrument to allow the husband to relax dominated the woman in the 19^th century (Shukla, 1991, 65).

However, women were incredibly active in the economy during this time period. Both in the urban and rural spheres, women allowed the economy to grow and support families. Much of the unwritten and forgotten work was conducted by women, which makes it incredibly important.

Urban Economics

The social reform movement in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries paved the way for many women to significantly contribute to the Indian economy. Women were tired of being aligned with such norms as “child marriage, sati, purdah, and lack of education” (Patel, 1998, 158). By initiating the slow progression away from these stereotypes, women entered the workforce and contributed greatly in the urban sphere.

There was a strong group of educated women that were able to establish themselves as successful entrepreneurs (Carter, 1996, 178). Women took up many professions in the urban environment, such as “social workers, teachers, academics, and doctors” (Patel, 1998, 158). This picture shown here reinforces the point of successful women in the urban setting.

“Nagar Brahmin Women” By William Johnson and William Henderson

The two women shown here are Nagar Brahmin women. The garden like setting states that it is within a city, seeing how urban areas contained many gardens and rural countryside looked quite different. The clothes also enforce this point, as the intricacies of the garbs are those worn by women of the city.

The lack of shoes is quite telling as to why these women are, in fact, working. Shoes were only worn by women in the city, as rural families could not afford such luxuries. Within the urban setting, only women who did not work wore shoes. Women who wore shoes were denoted as being more “polite, patient, kind and considerate,” with women staying in the domestic sphere the only ones who were able to fully project such qualities (Shukla, 1991, 65). These two women are not wearing shoes, indicating that they in fact work.

The success of these women is apparent, as their garbs are well made and their jewelry being prominent throughout their dressing. These women epitomize the successful female actuality in India during the period, showing that women were in fact accepted in contributing to national development and economic progress (Patel, 1998, 159).

Women also contributed greatly in the textile mills. The industry needed an ever increasing labor force as the world economy became more globalized around the turn of the 20^th century. With women, the mills had found this ready-made labor force. Women began to leave their domestic spheres for the production mills (Sen, 1999, 39). Women in urban economies made significant contributions in many aspects.

Rural Economics

Though women in the urban economy were greatly beneficial, the importance of them in the rural setting was even greater. Generally, men worked in the city while women would work in agriculture (Sen, 199, 52). Their participation in the plantation sector of the colonial economy was immeasurable, with the work being vital to the family’s stability (Carter, 1996, 178).

Many Indian families could not survive with just the man working in the city. The female’s work in agriculture “subsidized the industrial” work of the man (Sen, 1999, 52). The woman’s work was generally more intense, with this hard labor key to the survival of many Indian families (Sen, 1999, 53). Due to this, the woman’s place in agriculture grew rapidly.

“Fisherwomen of Bombay” By William Johnson

This photo exemplifies the urban-rural split in the gender workforce. These are fisherwomen. In order to occupy this profession, access to a market must be available indicating that they are in fact from the city. These women have multiple garbs on, with some being quite well made, yet the overall plainness indicates that they are at work. There are many women here, reinforcing the notion that this was common with families, as the woman’s need to supplement income was vital to survival.

Women began to enter the labor market more and more in the rural economy. Rice, wheat, sugarcane, tea, and coffee farms were worked by women (Roy, 2005, 26). This enabled the expansion of India’s capabilities, securing the female’s place as a vital part of the Indian economy.

“Three Bhundaree Women at Work” By William Johnson

In this photo to the right, women are posing around the wine jugs they have made. These women, based on their basic attire, work in the rural sphere. The slumped postures with the drooped heads show the exhaustion the women are under. The young girl on the left demonstrates the poor socioeconomic standing of these women, as the man’s income is needed to be helped by all women that are able. This type of work was typical in Indian culture, with women’s importance in the workplace growing rapidly.

Women in Mexico

Women in Mexico in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries faced many of the same ill-conceived stereotypes as women in India. The woman’s place in the economy was viewed as minimal, with the little work completed being unskilled and unproductive. Often, these jobs consisted of hard labor with low salaries (Fernández-Aceves, 2003, 87). This could not be farther from the truth.

During this time period, women played a vital role in Mexico’s economy. More than a quarter of all women worked, with this making up a third of the entire workforce (Wasserman, 2000, 41). Women’s contribution to the Mexican economic system was essential in all sectors, with their inclusion being necessary in all aspects of life.

Urban Economics

Women labor in the urban environment was vital to economic progress. The all-important corn mills in Mexico were run by the women, as their necessity gave them an almost possessive feeling towards the industry (Fernández-Aceves, 2003, 93). Other mass production work consisted of the textile industry. Women again provided much of the labor force, with their role of spinning being the most labor-intensive (Villanueva, 1985, 18).

“Making Jute Coffee Bags” By Unknown

In this photo women are doing the weaving and spinning to produce coffee bags. This factory is all women, demonstrating the commonness of women working. The open spacing of the factory suggests that it was made for mass production, with many of the clothes being produced necessary for the Mexican economy. Women’s role in the factory was clearly quite pervasive.

The marketplace in the urban setting was also dominated by women. Many vendors at the market were women. The creation of sellable goods was also significant, with the women’s norm of being an artisan being incredibly prevalent during this period (Wasserman, 2000, 42). With the men working in other sectors, the woman’s role in the necessities of life proved invaluable to Mexican economics.

“Mexican Market Woman” By Unknown

This photo here represents the woman’s role in the marketplace. This woman is of a lower socioeconomic standing, demonstrated by her lack of display and simple attire. The food and baskets being sold by her were essential for daily life in Mexico, showing that she would be quite important for many families. Women in the urban sphere were crucial in continuing the economic system of Mexico.

Rural Economics

On top of the urban importance, women were the primary farmers in the Mexican economic society (Wasserman, 2000, 32). Women tilled the land, the most intensive work of the farming process, and made sure the crops grew throughout the season (Monk, 2010). In particular, the women’s role in shucking corn and grinding maize was prevalent, with the entire diet of the Mexican culture based around those crops (Wasserman, 2000, 142). Women played the central role in agriculture in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries in Mexico, providing the backbone of the entire economic system.

“Grinding Corn in Tehuantepec” By C.B. Waite

Women’s rural role of food production was of great importance as well. In this picture, two young girls are grinding corn to make tortillas. Women of all ages were expected to produce in this manner, as there was generally a labor shortage for the work required. The young age of these women highlights that fact. The girl on the left holding the baby demonstrates the poverty of these women, as the family is forced to have the baby at work instead of with a care-giver. The girls were clearly important to their family’s survival, as many women in this time period were. Women were underappreciated in Mexico, yet their actual importance is incredible.

Conclusion

Women in Mexico and India were clearly necessary for their respective economies at the end of the 19^th and the beginning of the 20^th centuries. Though these two nations were on opposite sides of the world, the oppression and ungratefulness of their gender and contributions are shared. Women during the time period, and much later on as well, were seen as simple heads of the domestic sphere, providing for the family being their only occupation in life. However, through the photos shown, one can see the true significance of women in the economy. These nations would have never been able to support themselves without the contribution of women. The injustice shown to them is criminal, though the cultures are completely different. The only commonality between these two countries is Men, which were more than willing to cast these all important figures in society away. It is clear, by the strides made by women, that men actually failed to do so.

Works Cited

Carter, Marina. “Lakshmi’s Legacy: The Testimonies of Indian Women in 19th Century Mauritius.” African Studies Review 2, no. 39 (1996): 177-79.

Fernández-Aceves, María. “Once We Were Corn Grinders: Women and Labor in the Tortilla Industry of Guadalajara, 1920-1940.” International Labor and Working-Class History, no. 63 (2003): 81-101.

Johnson, William. “Fisherwomen of Bombay.” Http://digitalcollections.smu.edu. Accessed April 30, 2015.

Johnson, William. “Bhundaree Women.” Digitalcollections.smu.edu. Accessed April 30, 2015.

Johnson, William, and William Henderson. “Nagar Brahmin Women.” Http://digitalcollections.smu.edu. Accessed April 30, 2015.

“Making Jute Coffee Bags.” Http://digitalcollections.smu.edu. Accessed April 30, 2015.

“Mexican Market Woman.” Http://digitalcollections.smu.edu. Accessed April 30, 2015.

Monk, Heather. “Mexican Women – Then and Now.” Internationalviewpoint.org. September 22, 2010. Accessed April 30, 2015.

Patel, Ila. “The Contemporary Women’s Movement and Women’s Education in India.” International Review of Education 44, no. 2 (1998): 155-75.

Roy, Tirthankar. “Agricultural Labor and Economic Transition in Colonial India: Lessons from Wage Data.” Http://economics.yale.edu. March 30, 2005. Accessed April 30, 2015.

Sarkar, Tanika. “Nationalist Iconography: Image of Women in 19th Century Bengali Literature.” Economic and Political Weekly 22, no. 47 (1987): 2011-015.

Sen, Samita. Women and Labour in Late Colonial India the Bengal Jute Industry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Shukla, Sonal. “Cultivating Minds: 19th Century Gujarati Women’s Journals.” Economic and Political Weekly 26, no. 43 (1991): 63-66.

Villanueva, Margaret. “From Calpixqui to Corregidor: Appropriation of Women’s Cotton Textile Production in Early Colonial Mexico.” Latin American Perspectives 21, no. 1 (1985): 17-40.

Waite, C.B. “Grinding Corn in Tehuantepec.” Digitalcollections.smu.edu. Accessed April 30, 2015.

Wasserman, Mark. Everyday Life and Politics in Nineteenth Century Mexico: Men, Women, and War. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2000.

The Unfortunate Side of Modernization

Published on April 30, 2015 by Charlie Fichtner

Today we often take photographs without thinking anything about their importance. They fill our phones, flash by us on our TV’s, and are plastered on billboards across the country. However, the photograph has changed history. Photography has transformed the old maxim that the conqueror exclusively writes history; a photograph shows a moment in time more clearly than a painting or a piece of literature can. A photograph can of course be staged, and will always be biased by the photographer’s viewpoint, but many photographs cannot hide certain truths of history. The colonization of India by the British and the colonization of Mexico of Spain, are much clearer because of the 19th century photographs. These photographs tell us about India’s colonial period after and during the Sepoy Rebellion, and tell us about life in Mexico’s post-colonial period. These photographs cover all aspects of society, from horrific and graphic violence to traditional clothing and ceremonies. They also give us a glimpse into a quickly modernizing world, based on massive technological and infrastructural improvements. Analyzing each of these photographs, from the two colonized nations on opposites sides of the globe, gives us a glimpse into colonial and postcolonial life that reveals some of colonial modernizations’ negative effects on both nations’ peoples and the environments.

http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/eaa/id/1506/rec/18

The first photo from India we will examine comes from the making of the Bengal Nagpur Railway in India. There are no very distinguishable people in this photo. However, we can tell that many of the people appear to be workers, due to their clothing and how they are carrying containers on their heads. Managers do not tend to do this. However, among the apparent workers we can see men dressed in white standing alone on the periphery. Are these managers? Are they British? We are left to wonder. Outside of the people, we can see a marred landscape. There appears to be extensive levels of excavation, and the landscape seems unrecognizable compared to a natural state. Then on very edge of the picture in the distance we start seeing what appears to be the edge of the forest. This allows for us to be able assume that the excavated land formerly was forested. This then allows us to come onto the conclusion that the building of the railway has caused deforestation in India.

This photo conveys a sense of how major the railroad construction was in India during the rule of the British Raj. The Indian Railway system by 1901 was in fact so large that it had the 4th most laid track in the entire world (Kerr 2014 114). This fact accentuates how much environmental damage must have been done in the area. This photograph shows just one little swath, it is hard to imagine how much was done in the along all 24,000 miles (Kerr 2014 114).

Construction of tunnel on Bengal Railway

http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/eaa/id/1505/rec/44

The second photo from India we will analyze, like the first photo from India, comes from the construction of the Bengal Nagpur Railway. There are nine Indian workers in the photo, who have stopped to pose for the picture being taken. They are all surrounding what appears to be the opening of a tunnel being built into the side of a mountain for the railway. The scene appears, at least to modern eyes as very unsafe. The mouth of the tunnel seems to be held up by rough-hewn and unstable wood framing. Workers then access the top of the frame and the tunnel by way of a tall and what appears to be a very unstable ladder.

Drilling through mountains for rail lines is common, and can be frequently seen from the Appalachians to the Alps, but why do it in what appears to be such a haphazard way as the British Raj did? Modern analysis shows that post-1861, the increase in grain demand in Britain was driven by and helped drive the construction of railroads (Andrabi, Tahir, Kuehlwein 2010 351-377) Therefore it seems that economics may have been the drive behind such hazardous working conditions.

http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/eaa/id/1505/rec/44

The third photo of India we are looking at is also from the creation of the Bengal Nagpur railway. The people who appear in this photo are the hundreds of Indian workers who are resting while employed on the building the railroad. The central object that draws the eye in the photo is the rickety bridge and the large man-made gorge beneath it, and from this photo a pair of deductions can be made. The first is that the British relied heavily on native labor to make the railroads and other facets of infrastructure. The second is that the working conditions for these workers were incredibly poor. I am not an engineer, but even I know that bridge is not safe. What is also extremely interesting about this photo is tha we, as viewers, continue to see large-scale deforestation and environmental change from the building of this railroad. The photograph in many ways looks like it could be taken from another view on the same location as the first photograph from India we have examined.

Modern analyst of soil throughout India has shown that throughout the past 150 years there has been considerable deforestation, with much of the harm coming in the 19th century (Prokop 2014). Examining this photo it is easy to imagine the vast scale of this deforestation at the hands of the British Raj The photo provides evidence to this harm being done by the colonizers to the natural landscape and environment of the colonized.

What we have gotten from examining these photos of India is a picture of a nation that was quickly being modernized by the British Raj. This at first seems like a good thing. However, there are other aspects of infrastructure improvement to consider. Yes, building India’s infrastructure was probably in the long run a good thing, but the photographs reveal that building the rushed building of railways for economic benefit put the workers in unsafe working conditions. The building of the railroads also had effects on the natural landscape of India that can still be seen today.

http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/mex/id/679/rec/5

The first photograph from Mexico is instantly striking due to the symmetry. The two-fronted train lends to this along with the symmetrical posing of the three men in the picture. The train itself is incredibly interesting in design and appears designed to go in both directions. What is interesting about the men is they appear Caucasian in skin color and not at all Indian. The writing at the bottom of the photo tells us a little about the background of the photo. Apparently it was taken around Vera Cruz, and considering, that the type is in English, we can assume the photographer is American.

Research reveals that there is a possibility that the men who appear in the picture, who run the train, may also be American. There are various examples of large sums of foreign investment in railroads during this period, such as the Mexican Central Railroad (Wasserman 19 and work for one of the foreign investors. There is also the interesting fact that outside nations were still investing in post-colonial Mexico’s infrastructure. This shows a sense that Mexico may have been free from colonial rule, but it was still controlled by foreign colonial powers.

http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/mex/id/738/rec/73

The second photograph of Mexico we are examining is of the San Luis Potosi train station. The center of the picture is a 19th century locomotive. The appearance of the locomotive is not out of the ordinary, considering it is a train station, but it is interesting that the locomotives number appears to have been blurred out. There is only one person in the picture, a man who seems to be dressed in some sort of official capacity, maybe a policeman, soldier, or a conductor. What is also noticeable about the photograph is the train station building itself. It is two stories and appears to be made of stone. The crenlons on top give it an appearance of being a fort. The well-cultivated garden appears in interesting contrast with the environmental devastation apparent in the pictures of India.

San Luis Potosi is well known for it’s mining industry, which has been a cornerstone of its’ economy for centuries (Encyclopedia Britannica 2015). This would explain the railway stopping there and the presence of such a large and distinguished train station. Considering what we know about foreign investment in the railroads, it makes sense that foreign investors would build rail lines toward areas of high foreign investment, like mines. This proves another example of a free Mexico still being manipulated by foreign power.

http://digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/mex/id/679/rec/5

The third photograph from Mexico we are examining is of an un-specified Mexican harbor. There are no people visible in this picture. However, there are many ships of various shapes sizes and types present. The ships seem to vary in age from old schooner rigs to more modern steamers. The appearance of so many ships allows for the deductions that this port is either a bustling economic hub or home to a naval squadron. This opens the question then of what are these ships for? Are they freighters, military ships, or something else? There is also the question of what are the ships nationalities? There is also the presence of a substantial town in the picture on the other side of the harbor. There is also most importantly what appears to be a shipyard, representing investment in infrastructure.

Unlike Mexico, India has a rich seafaring history that dates back to the earliest days of maritime trade (Paine 2013 160-166). Mexico is different in that large-scale maritime operations did not arise until Spanish colonization. (Paine 2013 34-35). Knowing this gives an impression of how much colonization changed Mexico. What was once a non-seafaring nation by the time of independence from Spain hosted harbors full of large modern ships. However, considering the earlier mentioned control wielded by foreign investors on the railways, it can be inferred they held a similar control over maritime infrastructure, especially when one considers how much the United States interfered with Central American maritime affairs with the building of Panama Canal (Paine 3013 562-563).

The photographs of Mexico show a nation in its post-colonial phase, where many facets of modernization were apparent. This may all seem like a sign that Mexico came out the role of colony and into post-colonial life independent and strong from former colonizers. However, the apparent massive role of foreign investors seems to show something different. Even as Mexico was free, the hand of foreign colonizers in their economy was still forcing running the many aspects of the nation, such as infrastructure development.

When looking at both of the photographs of Mexico and India there are interesting contrasts in the pictures. The photographs of India we examined are taken during the rule of the British Raj, when the railroads are being built. The photographs of Mexico are different in that they are taken post-colonialism, when infrastructure is done and Mexico is no longer directly controlled by Spain. However, there are also similarities apparent in the pictures from both countries. India’s pictures tell the story of modernization as the result of colonization, but also the unfortunate side effects of this forced modernization. Mexico’s photographs tell the story of a nation that is technically free, but still is in many ways influenced and partially controlled by foreign investors. The beauty of photographs is that these hidden negative side effects of colonial rule are more readily seen, whether it is a photograph of vast environmental destruction or a photograph of a train controlled by foreign investors.

Works Cited

Andrabi, Tahir, and Michael Kuehlwein. “Railways and price convergence in British India.” The Journal of Economic History 70.2 (2010): 351-377. Academic OneFile. Web. 30 Apr. 2015.

Kerr, Ian J. “Colonial India, its railways, and the cliometricians.” The Journal of Transport History 35.1 (2014): 114+. Academic OneFile. Web. 30 Apr. 2015.

Paine, Lincoln. “The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World”
Alfred A. Knopf, New York. 2013

Prokop, P., and D. PAoskonka. “Natural and human impact on the land use and soil properties of the Sikkim Himalayas piedmont in India.” Journal of Environmental Management 138 (2014): 15+.Academic OneFile. Web. 30 Apr. 2015.

“San Luis Potosi”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2015. Web. 29 Apr. 2015

Wasserman, Mark. “Empresa extranjera y mercado interno: el ferrocaril Central Mexicano, 1880-1907.” Americas: A Quarterly Review of Inter-American Cultural History 54.2 (1997): 305+. Academic OneFile. Web. 29 Apr. 2015.

The Infrastructural Boom of Colonialism

Published on April 30, 2015 by Jessica Ackerman

Finding a constant theme throughout a counties history can be a tedious and frustrating task. Finding the same theme that carries its self through the history of not one but two countries can be even more of an exhausting task. Place those countries on opposite sides of the world, with different languages, different religions, and vastly different cultures. Now you must find the connecting theme between the two of them. Confused? This is how I felt when I was told to find a thesis that applies to both Colonial India and Colonia Mexico. Both India and Mexico were colonized by European powers and were subjected to violence and racial segregation. But this is true of most European colonies. Upon looking at the collection of photographs at DeGolyer library, I noticed a topic that occurred in many of the photos. Bridges, roads, and railways graced the forefront of many of these historic photos. This infrastructure was built at the demand of the colonizing powers. During and after colonial rule, both India and Mexico experienced a boom in infrastructure that resulted in an increase of trade and transpiration.

When studying history some of the most reliable and informative sources are photographs. Original and untouched photos do not only tell us history but they show us it. They bring the stories that one hears in textbooks to life. The DeGolyer library’s collections of William Johnson’s, Abel Briquet’s, and Townshend Phot’s photographs take the viewer into colonial India and 1800 hundreds Mexico. They depict social, political, and economical issues that plagued these colonized countries. The photographs show in depth images religious practices and gender standards that are read about but are not often viewed. Most importantly these photographs give people an image to identify with the early infrastructure and railway systems of the 1800 and 1900 hundreds.

India and Mexico were colonized a hundred years apart from each other. This time difference caused the production of different types of infrastructure under colonial rule. Mexico was colonized in the 1500s and gained independence in 1821 far before India was released from colonialism. At the time of Mexican colonization roads were the only recognized form of transportation infrastructure. A few years after Mexico gained independence, the county would turn to railways as its new mean of transportation and trade. Parts of India were colonized by the British East India company as early as 1757. It was not until 1858 that india was directly colonized by the British. In 1947 after decades of suppression India gained its independence from Britain[1]. During India’s time under British rule railroads became a preferred method of transportation around the world. As a result the British focused their time on creating and expanding the railway system within India. With time the railway system grew and in 1901 the railways in India were the longest in the world when measured by route mile[2]. In the same year it was estimated that 189,098,000 people rode on the trains and the railroads employed 354,902 people[3]. Even though this development happened years apart, many similarities can be seen in the process of achieving this new infrastructure and the importance of railways in both countries economies.

While under colonial rule of the Spanish, Mexico experienced pressure to conform to the European life style. The Europeans pushed religion, language, and racial segregation upon the native Mexican people. Along with the introduction of new cultural beliefs came the European desire to develop Mexico. Spain tried to make Mexico a modern country and with that came the introduction of new infrastructure. Much of this infrastructure came in the form of churches and European style buildings. But with these new buildings came the introduction of roads. The first and only roads built during colonization were located on the pacific coast[4]. The roads were built for easy access to the ports and ships for trade. The Spanish’s intention was to exploit Mexico for its goods and natural resources. With the introduction of these roads the Spanish could easily bring goods to the port cities to then be traded with other European countries.

In 1821 Mexico gained its independence from the Spanish. At this time the country was about four million square kilometers and had about 6,800,000 inhabitants spread all around the land[5]. Faced with the issue of how citizens and goods would be able to easily go from one region to another, Mexico came up with an idea to benefit transportation. At this time trains were becoming an increasingly popular mode of transportation specifically for trade. Mexico decided that railway system would be the best way to connect towns in rural Mexico to large

Bridge in rural Mexico. Railroads were used to connect small cities to larger port cities

port cities. The constructions of these railroads were strictly for Economic and Developmental reasons[6]. These railways systems reached all the way to rural farmland where the trains would pick up goods to bring into the cities. Typically in the more rural areas the railroads track and bridges were simple and made of wood. As the system entered the urban areas the bridges became far more structural sound with with stone arches. With the introduction of the railway system goods could now be brought to people in rural Mexico who would have other wise struggled to find the supplies they need. The primary reason for the railway system was trade and for this reason nearly all railways led to a port city. When Mexico was colonized the British used infrastructure to exploit goods from Mexico but it was after Independence that trade with Mexico really took off. The introduction of the railways and easy access to port cities opened up many economic opportunities for Mexico.

Cargo train carries coal to people in rural Mexico

The construction of the first railroads in India began in 1850[7]. The British decided to build the railroad system with the intentions for “economic exploitation of commodity resources and greater mobility of armed forces[8]”. To do so the British had to gain better access to the sea, which would result in an easier process of trading, the railroads started in Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta[9]. The process of building railroads in the late 1800’s and early1900’s was complicated and tiresome. In the Punjab areas the first step was the deforestation of the

Deforestation occurred in order to clear a path for railways. Indian workers exposed to dangerous work environment

area in which the rails would be placed[10]. Indian people were forced to destroy their own land in order to obey the wishes of the British government. The ground had to be cleared to make way for the rails and trees had to be harvested in order to supply wood for construction. Townshend Phot’s photo exposes the result of this mass deforestation. Few trees are pictured and the ground is coated in dry crumbling dirt. The evidence of this deforestation still remains today and is constant reminder of the impact that colonization had on not only Indian culture but also the environment.

The process of building a railroad is dangerous and exhausting. Townshend Phot’s photo exposes the reality of railway construction in India. Nearly all of those who did the manual labor were from Indian backgrounds. The Europeans were in charge and drew the construction plans while the native people over worked in the strong Indian sun. This photo shows evidence that these men worked in extremely dangerous situations. The infrastructure that they stood on was crowded with hundreds on men and the walkways look as if they could crumble at anytime. These Indian men risked their life in order to keep their job but the British did not seem to mind. The British government saw the Indians as second-class citizens and therefore could justify putting them in danger.

The British Government built the railway system with the intention to increase trade and military mobility. To their surprise the Indian public took a liking to the railway system and quickly adapted trains as major mode of transportation. The railways connected India and brought people to areas of the country that they rarely had an opportunity to go to before. With the growing popularity of trains among natives came an increase in religious pilgrimages as well as the promotion of economic development[11]. Indians were faced with an opportunity for trade. More than ever before their country was connected and they could bring goods from one region to another. The railroads, for the most part, benefitted India so much so that during a Indian National Congress an Indian statesman in 1885 wrote, “ What a glorious change the railway has made in old and long neglected India! If India is to become a homogeneous nation, and is ever to achieve solidarity, it must be by means of the Railways as a means of transport[12]”. The railway system continued to grow stretching miles across farmland, over rives, and through hills. As seen in William Johnsons photograph, beautiful arched bridges were built in the middle of underdeveloped farmland. Farmers watched as trains crossed the bridge on their way to the next big city. These railway

Railroad in Indian Countryside

systems were built with the intention to benefit the British and their trade systems. While this was achieved and the British gained easier access to the port cities the railway system benefitted the Indians as much as the British. Indians were finally about to see their country and participate in trade and religious pilgrimages in far off region.

Colonized at different times and by different European powers, it’s daunting to find a similarity between Mexico and India. The introduction of transportation infrastructure, specifically railroads, ties these two countries together. In both cases the colonizing European powers introduced new infrastructure in order to benefit themselves economically. This infrastructure was intended to increase trade by exploiting the native country for goods and easily transporting them to port cities. In both countries the European power was successful in their mission to increase their trade rate. That being said India and Mexico also reached economic success with the introduction of this infrastructure specifically the railroad systems. Trains gave natives citizens the ability to moves around their own country. As these citizens traveled from place to place they brought goods with them to sell. Railways were responsible for big economic booms in both India and Mexico which helped contribute to their ability to function with out European colonization.

[1] “Colonialism on the March.” Newsweek 130, no. 5 (August 4, 1997): 44. Academic Search Complete.

[2] Kerr, Ian J. “Colonial India, Its Railways, and the Cliometricians.” Journal of Transport History 35, no.1 (2014); 114-20.

[3] Kerr, Ian J. “Colonial India, Its Railways, and the Cliometricians.”

[4] Dye, Alexander V. “Railways and Revolutions in Mexico.” Foreign Affairs 5, no. 2 (January 1927): 321-23. JSTOR.

[5] Cuellar, Alfredo B. “Railroad Problems of Mexico.” Annals of the American

Academy of Political and Social Science 187 (1936): 193-2006. JSTOR

[6] Dye, Alexander V. “Railways and Revolutions in Mexico.” Foreign Affairs 5, no. 2 (January 1927): 321-23. JSTOR.

[7] Kerr, Ian J. “Colonial India, Its Railways, and the Cliometricians.” Journal of Transport History 35, no.1 (2014); 114-20.

[8] Conlon, Frank. “Engines of Change: The Railroads that Made India.” Technology and Culture 49, no. 2 (April 2008): 471-72. JSTOR.

[9] Conlon, Frank. “Engines of Change: The Railroads that Made India.”

[10] Das, Pallavi. “Colonialism and the Environment in India: Railways and Deforestation In the 19th Century Punjab.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 46, no. 1 (February 1, 2011): 38-53. Academic Search Complete.

[11] Conlon, Frank. “Engines of Change: The Railroads that Made India.” Technology and Culture 49, no. 2 (April 2008): 471-72. JSTOR.

[12] Conlon, Frank. “Engines of Change: The Railroads that Made India.”

Bibliography

“Colonialism on the March.” Newsweek 130, no. 5 (August 4, 1997): 44. Academic search complete.

Conlon, Frank. “Engines of Change: The Railroads that Made India.” Technology and Culture 49, no. 2 (April 2008): 471-72. JSTOR.

Cuellar, Alfredo B. “Railroad Problems of Mexico.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 187 (1936): 193-2006. JSTOR.

Briquet, Abel. Macquina Fairlie. Photograph. 1890.

Briquet, Abel. Viaducto de Jajalpa. Photograph. 1885.

Das, Pallavi. “Colonialism and the Environment in India: Railways and Deforestation In the 19th Century Punjab.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 46, no. 1 (February 1, 2011): 38-53. Academic Search Complete.

Dye, Alexander V. “Railways and Revolutions in Mexico.” Foreign Affairs 5, no. 2 (January 1927): 321-23. JSTOR.

Johnson, William. Train in Bridge. Photograph. 1855.

Kerr, Ian J. “Colonial India, Its Railways, and the Cliometricians.” Journal of Transport History 35, no.1 (2014): 114-20.